Page 1 of 8: some patho slides....

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starting from basics...

A basic cell is bounded by a cell membrane. Within the cell is a nucleus containing chromatin, often condensed at the periphery, along with larger clumps called chromocenters, and in some cells a nucleolus into which RNA is concentrated. The cytoplasm contains the cytosol and a variety of organelles, including mitochondria that power the cell via production of ATP, endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes that synthesize new materials, a Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes.

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Cellular structure and function are determined by various cellular components. Glandular epithelial cells, such as the lining of the small intestine with a brush border, have microvilli. Glandular epithelial cells may have cytoplasmic mucin vacuoles. Epithelial cells are characterized by the presence of desmosomes that connect them. Many types of cells have cytoskeletal proteins. Squamous epithelial cells may have cytoskeletal elements such as tonofilaments. Cells with neuroendocrine differentiation tend to be rounded and may have cytoplasmic neurosecretory granules.
The extracellular matrix (ECM) is composed of a variety of components. An adhesion complex in the cell links to integrin that extends outward. Seen here is a basement membrane. An important component of basement membrane is laminin, which acts as a "lag bolt" to connect cells via integrin to the ECM. Collagen (type IV in basement membrane and types V and VI as fine fibrils) comprises the structural component of ECM that provides shape and stability. Fibronectin is an adhesive protein that acts as a "glue" to hold the various components together.

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There are some muscle fibers here that show atrophy. The number of cells is the same as before the atrophy occurred, but the size of some fibers is reduced. This is a response to injury by "downsizing" to conserve the cell. In this case, innervation of the small fibers in the center was lost. This is a trichrome stain.

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Here is the centrilobular portion of liver next to a central vein. The cells have reduced in size or been lost from hypoxia. The pale brown-yellow pigment is lipochrome that has accumulated as the atrophic and dying cells undergo autophagocytosis.

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Here is one of the nodules of hyperplastic prostate, with many glands along with some intervening stroma. The cells making up the glands are normal in appearance, but there are just too many of them

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Metaplasia of laryngeal respiratory epithelium has occurred here in a smoker. The chronic irritation has led to an exchanging of one type of epithelium (the normal respiratory epithelium at the right) for another (the more resilient squamous epithelium at the left). Metaplasia is not a normal physiologic process and may be the first step toward neoplasia

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Metaplasia of the normal esophageal squamous mucosa has occurred here, with the appearance of gastric type columnar mucosa

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This is dysplasia. The normal cervical squamous epithelium has become transformed to a more disorderly growth pattern, or dysplastic epithelium. This is farther down the road toward neoplasia, but dysplasia is still a potentially reversible process.

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When there is marked cellular injury, there is cell death. This microscopic appearance of myocardium is a mess because so many cells have died that the tissue is not recognizable. Many nuclei have become pyknotic (shrunken and dark) and have then undergone karorrhexis (fragmentation) and karyolysis (dissolution). The cytoplasm and cell borders are not recognizable

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Here is myocardium in which the cells are dying. The nuclei of the myocardial fibers are being lost. The cytoplasm is losing its structure, because no well-defined cross-striations are seen.

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